الاثنين، 5 أكتوبر 2015

أ. مصطفى رياض علي العجيلي: التسامي والمذهب المادي في روايات الكاتب الامريكي فتزجرالد


السبت، 13 أكتوبر، 2012
M. Mustafa Riad Al ajeely : TRANSCENDENTALISM & NATURALISM IN F. SCOTT FITZGERALD's NOVELS التسامي والمذهب المادي في روايات الكاتب الامريكي فتزجرالد
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم



دراسة عن

TRANSCENDENTALISM 
AND  NATURALISM  
IN F. SCOTT FITZGERALD's NOVELS

 التسامي والمذهب المادي في روايات الكاتب الامريكي فتزجرالد



BY

 M. Mustafa  Riad   Al ajeely  

                                                                      

 أ. مصطفى رياض علي العجيلي
   مدرس اللغة الانكليزية في  ثانوية صلاح الدين للبنين/ الانبار 
(ماجستير في  الادب الانكليزي)


                                                                        (1430هـ -  2009 م)




ملخص

      يعد  ف سكوت فيتزجيرالد (1896 -- 1940)   احد الكتاب الرائدين في عصر الحداثة البارزين في الرواية الأمريكية الحديثة. 

 فضلا عن تجربته الفنية في الكتابة , أشتهر الكاتب بقدرته على تجســيد  تلاقح منوع لعدة مدارس فكرية متباينة في كتاباته.

    تهدف هذه الدراسة من تتبع هذا المزج بين مدرسة التسامي في الأدب والمذهب الطبيعي كمفهومين فلسفيين من وجهات النظر في روايات  فتزجرالد .

فضلا عن تتبع تأثير المدرستين في رواياته  , وأقتفاء أثرهما في موضوعات روايته وأسلوب كتابتهما وشخوصهما  وإحداث المجتمع الأمريكي الحديث.

وتندرج موضوعات الدراسة هذه في فصول ثلاثة وخاتمة:

   فقد فصّل الفصل الأول في مقدمته أحوال المدرستين وأثرهما في فن الرواية الأمريكية وموضوعاتها واشتملت موجز لسيرة الكاتب وأثاره الأدبية.

    وتدارس الفصل الثاني روايات فتزجرالد المبكرة مع التركيز على رواية       (هذا الجانب من الجنة) 1920 . والتي تعتبر الرواية الأولى للكاتب حيث تجلت فيها مفهوم التجلي أو التسامي بشكل واضح.

   بينما يدرس الفصل الثالث روايات فتزجرالد المتأخرة مع التركيز على رواية   (غاتسبي العظيم) 1925 .  حيث يسود مفهوم الطبيعية بشكل واضح.

وقد انتهت الدراسة بسرد للأفكار الأساسية التي تناولتها الدراسة والاتجاهات الأدبية السائدة في حقبتي من الحياة الأدبية للكاتب وجملة من المستخلصات والنتائج.

ABSTRACT


         F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896- 1940) is one of the major pioneers of the Modernism in the Modern American Novel.                
       Apart from his technical experimentation, he is famous of blending of generic types like Transcendentalism and Naturalism literary schools in his writing.
       The aim of this study is to trace this blending of Transcendentalism and Naturalism as two plaited philosophical points of views in F. Scott Fitzgerald's novels.
       As well as to see the influence of such literary schools in F. Scott Fitzgerald's novels. And how their influenced on the themes, styles, forms, characters, and events of the modern American society in general.
The study falls into three chapters and Conclusion:
       Chapter one is an introduction which provides detailed explanation of these two literary schools and their influence on American Modern novels and thoughts. As well as a brief summary about F. Scott Fitzgerald's Life and career in order to make the reader familiar with the author.
      Chapter two, studies Fitzgerald's early novels represented ;        This Side of Paradise 1920. Fitzgerald's first novel. In this novel Transcendentalism predominates.
     Chapter three studies Fitzgerald's late novels, represented;   The Great Gatsby 1925. In this novel Naturalism predominates.
Finally, the conclusion sums up the views and findings the study.
  
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Chapter One
Introduction


1-1: F. Scott Fitzgerald's Life and Career in Brief.

      Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald (1896)- (1940) is one of the major pioneers of Modernism in American novel.
''He was born in ST Paul, Minnesota, on September 24, 1896, the namesake and second cousin three times removed of the author of the National Anthem. His father Edward Fitzgerald, was from Maryland, with an allegiance to the old south and its values''1
Fitzgerald attended ST. Paul Academy; he played football and basketball and became a debater but was a poor student and not very popular. ''His first writing to appear in print was The Mystery of the Raymond Mortgage.A detective story published in the school newspaper when he was in''2.
Fitzgerald summarized his 15th years as ''A year of real unhappiness excepting the feverish joys of x Mas''3. But in his 17th year he describes this year as ''A year of work and vivid experince''4.
He wrote at that age; scripts and lyrics for the Trangle club musicals and contributed to the Princeton Tiger Humer Magazine and the Nassau Literary Magazine.
''In June 1918 Fitzgerald was assigned to Camp Sheridan near Montgomery, Alabama. There he fell in love with a celebrated belle, 18-years old Zelda Sayre''5.  Fitzgerald described his 21st year as ''A year of enormous importance, work and Zelda''6.

     Fitzgerald's more ambitious stories, such as May Day and The Diamond as Big as the Ritz, were published in the smart set, an influential magazine with a comparatively small circulation.
This Side of Paradise, was published on March 26, 1920. Set mainly at Princeton and described by its author as a quest novel.
     The novel traces the career ambitions and love disappointments of  Amory Blaine, a highly autobiographical character who shares Fitzgerald sense of the possibilities of life and his aspiration towards the fulfillment of his unique destiny. This side of Paradise, is significant for its serious treatment of the liberated girl and of college life.
     It was also a milestone in American Literature for its attempt to combine the normally in congruous elements of Transcendentalism and Romanticism.
     His early success became a formative influence on the rest of his career, shaping his romantic emphasis on aspiration. ''Fitzgerald spent a riotous summer in Westport, Connecticut, where he began to write his second novel; The Beautiful and Damned (1922).''7. It shows structural advances from the looseness of his first novel. Fitzgerald's ambivalence toward his highly autobiographical characters fluctuating from approval to contempt creates problems with point of view.
     It occupies an interesting position in his career as a transitional novel that shows him experimenting with and refining his craft. Literary opinions made were reluctant to accord Fitzgerald full marks as a serious craftsman. His reputation as a drinker fed, the myth that he was an irresponsible writer yet he was a painstaking reviser whose fiction went through layers of drafts.

     Fitzgerald's clear, lyrical, colorful, witty style evoked the emotions associated with time and place. His prose is recognizable by warmth of the authorial voice. When critics objected to Fitzgerald's concern with love and success, his response was; ''but, my God! It was my material and it was all had to deal with''8.
     The chief theme of Fitzgerald's work is aspiration, idealism, Transcendentalism and Naturalism.'' He regarded as defining American character''9. Another major theme was mutability or loss as a social historian Fitzgerald became identified with the Jazz Age. '' it was an age of excess, and it was an age of satirc''10.
     Fitzgerald's third novel was The Great Gatsby (1925). Marking as striking advance in Fitzgerald's technique, utilizing a complex structure and controlled narrative point of view. Much of the novel's significance is rooted in, is exploration of the American Dream. Jay Gatsby as self-made man, achieves financial success, but he does not understand how wealth works in society. He believes in the promises of America. In The Orgiastic future, but his ambitions are undermined by and confused with his illusions about Daisy Fay Buchanan.
     We can see in The Great Gatsby, an exploration of how wealth affects characters and how wealth operates in America. It also included Winter Dreams and The Sensible Thing. Which have a close connections with the novels' themes of love and lose.
     Fitzgerald's fourth novel was; Tender is the Night (1934).  It created tremendous anticipation, but Fitzgerald's most ambitions novel was commercial failure, and its merits were maters of critical dispute.

     It examines the deterioration of Dick Diver a brilliant American psychiatrist, during the course of his marriage to wealthy mental patient.
     Fitzgerald's depiction of Dick's decline illuminates his sense of a loss of purpose after the success of Great Gatsby as later chronicled in his 1936 , Crack up essay.
    Fitzgerald is more than a novelist but is also a great short stories writer. He has many shot stories like for instance ;-
Tales of the Jazz Age (1922), All the Sad young Men (1926), Taps at Reveille (1935) and the like….  '' F. Scott Fitzgerald died believing himself a failure''11. The obituaries were condescending and he seemed destined for literary obscurity. The first phase of the Fitzgerald resurrection ''revival'' does not adequately describe the process occurred between 1945 and 1950. By 1960 he had achieved as cure place among America's ending writers: examines the theme of aspiration in an American setting defines the classic American Novel.


.2: Transcendentalism:

Transcendentalism is one of the schools of literature appeared in New England States of United States, where it become both a philosophy and a literary, religious and social movement.
     It reached its peak during the 1840's. Ralph Waldo Emerson was the leading American Transcendentalist. ''He taught that the physical world is secondary to the spiritual world; but the physical world serves humanity by providing useful goods and by making human beings a ware of beauty''12.
     Therefore Transcendentalism was a philosophy that became influential during the late 1700's and 1800's. it was based on the belief that knowledge is not limited to experience and observation.
    Transcendentalist wanted to reclaim the mystic and the divine and supernatural light, delivered immediately to the soul by the spirit of God. ''They also emphasized that the solution of human problems lies in the free development of individual emotions.''13. they believed that reality exists only in the world of the spirit. What a person observes in the physical world are the only appearances, transient reflections of the world of the spirit. People can learn about the physical world through their senses and understanding. But they learn about the world of spirit through another power called; ''Reason'' meant ''insight''.
''The Transcendentalists defined Reason as the independent and intuitive capacity to know what is absolutely true''14.
     Emerson and his followers believed that human beings find truth within themselves and so they emphasized self-reliance and individuality. 
''They believed that society is a necessary evil''15. They argue that to learn what is right, a person must neglect and ignore customs and social principles and rely on Reason.
'' The Transcendentalists believed that the doctrines and organized churches of orthodox Christianity interfered with the personal  relationship between a person and a God''16.
     They declares that individuals should reject the authority of Christianity and gain knowledge of God through insight.The American Transcendentalists never became influenced American intellectual history and literature, besides Emerson, the leading American Transcendentalists including Margret Fuller and Henry David Thoreau.
'' American Transcendentalists believed in a God existing inside every creature''17. And in the significance of intuitive thought. It was based on a mouism holding the unity of the world and God, and the immanence of God in the world. ''The Transcendentalist believed that the soul of each individual is identical with the soul of the world and contain what the world contians''18.
     Therefore Transcendentalism began as a religious movement: an attempt to substitute a Romanticized version of the mystical ideal that humankind is capable of direct experience of the holy for the rationalist view that the truths of religion are arrived at by a process of empirical study and by rational inference from historical and natural evidence.
     Emerson in Nature (1836) states: ''That belief we term Transcendentalism maintains that man has ideas that come not through the fives senses or the power of reasoning; but are either the result of direct revelation from God, his immediate inspiration, or his immanent presence in the spiritual world…''19.
     The Greek philosopher Plato developed the philosophical concept of transcendence; that is ''the notion of higher reality that exists beyond the powers of human comperhension''20.
     He affirmed the existence of absolute goodness, which he characterized as something beyond description and as knowable ultimately only through intuition. Later religious philosophers influenced by Plato, applied maintaining that God can be neither described nor concerned.''21. ''The doctrine that God is transcendental existing outside nature is a fundamental principle in the orthodox forms of Christianity, Judaism and Islam.''22.
     Other philosophers have applied this concept to describe the unknowable reality of God. After the Renaissance, the chief source of Transcendentalist ideas was the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, later German idealist philosophers who were influenced by Kant, particularly Fichte (18th and 19th c.) Schelling (19th c.) and Husserl (20th c.) described their views as transcendental. While transcendentalism was, in part a reaction to certain 18th c. rationalist doctrines, it was strongly influenced  by deism.
''Transcendentalism also involved a rejection of the strict puritan religious attitudes that were the heritage of New England, where the movement orginated''23.
     In addition, it opposed the strict ritualism and dogmatic theology of all established religious institutions the transcendentalists were influenced by Romanticism, the celebration of individualism and the exultation of the beauties of nature and human kind.
     Consequently, transcendentalists writers expressed semi-religious feelings towards nature, as well as the creative process; 
  remember the concept ''Organic Unity by Coleridge, and saw a direct connection between the universe (macrocosm) and the individual soul (microcosm)''24.
     In this view, divinity penetrated all objects animate or inanimate and the purpose of human life was union, with the over-soul intuition rather than reason i.e.: rationality; note the difference between ''reason'' and ''Reason'' was regarded as the highest human faculty. Fulfillment of human potential could be accomplished though mysticism or though and deep awareness of the beauty and truth of the surrounding natural world. This process was regarded on individual activity and no orthodox tradition was accepted.
     Thus , ''Transcendentalism, on another level, was a protest against the materialism of American society and the creation of artificial wants for things which were unnedded''25.
     Therefore Transcendentalism began as a protest against the general state of culture and society and in particular, the state of intellectualism at Harvard and the doctrine of the Unitarian church taught at Harvard Divinity school. Among transcendentalists' care belief was an ideal spiritual state that transcends the physical and empirical and is only realized through the individual intuition rather than through the doctrines of established religion. ''Prominent transcendentalists included; Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Orestes Brownson, Margaret Fuller''26. And the like…
''Transcendentalism was rooted in the transcendental philosophy of Immanuel Kant and the German idealism more generally''27.
     The transcendentalists desired to ground their religion and philosophy in transcendental principles : principles not based on or falsifiable by, sensuous experience, but deriving from the inner, spiritual or mental essence of the human. Immanuel Kant had called ''all knowledge transcendental which is concerned not with objects but with our mode of knowing objects''28.
     Transcendentalists were strong believers in the power of individual and divine message. Their beliefs are closely linked with those of romantics.
     The movement directly influenced the growing movement of mental sciences of the mid 1800s which would later become visualized as the ''New thought'' Movement. Another alternative meaning for transcendentalism is ''the classical philosophy that God transcends the manifest world.''29. ''the transcendentalists adopts the whole connecting of spiritual doctrines''30. They believe in miracle in the perpetual openness of the human mind to new influx of light and power; they believe in inspiration principle should suffered to demonstrate itself to the end of man without the admission of anything unspiritual; that is anything positive, dogmatic, personal. Thus they spiritual measure of inspiration is the depth of thoughts.
''After the two wars; American war of independences (1775-83) and the civil war (1816-65), New America begins to focus internally no longer on the force of weapons and diplomacy but on strengthening the values of this new nation''31.
     Where true individualism, free thought views of democracy and much more. This new revolution builds a national literature and philosophy with pens rather than guns. In many ways transcendentalism dominates the intellectual life of this period. It is believed that this is the true beginning and even source of American humanism. Moreover by the 1860s America is no longer just a nation of soldiers, authors, farmers and merchants but of individual free men, later free women, later free blacks, free minorities, scientist, technologists diplomats, artists, leaders, visionaries, writers, pragmatists, philosophers, industrialists, environmentalists, intellectuals, construction work and engineers, immigrants and migrants.
     People from all parts of the world came to America and would launch this experiment, this diversified nation into a superpower unprecedented in the history of humanity. Contend that the fundamental principles of transcendentalism are based on the American conscience as firmly as the constitution itself, and both just as strong as they were when they began.
     Whitman said ''the United States themselves are essentially the greatest in his preface to Leaves of Grass''32.
     In many mind he is picturing transcendentalism merger into American patriotism. ''the echo major principles of Transcendentalism ; non-conformity, growth and renewal of the individualism, revolt against traditions and established institutions, civil disobedience, brotherhood of man, nature and spiritual unity and educational reforme''33.
     American Transcendentalism curiously found itself in a similar situation to our own. Theodore Parker described the Transcendentalists desire for spiritual growth when he wrote in his journal; ''I felt early that the liberal ministers did not do justice to simple religious feeling… all their preaching seemed to relate too much to outward things not enough to the inward pious life… most powerfully preaching to the understanding, the conscience and the will, the cry was ever ''Duty,Duty''! work. Work! They failed to address with equal power to soul and did not also shout ''Joy, Joy''! Delight, Delight!''34.


     As a result, the transcendentalist developed what we might indentify as a set of behaviors that I believe offers us a unique opportunity to share- across the religious paths we fellow as individuals – a uniquely Unitarian universalist spiritual practice. That spiritual practice begins with what Robinson Calls a ''Theology of self- culture''. ''self- culture is a term the transcendentalists used to convey an overarching philosophy of the spirit.''35.
     The word ''self'' was a religious word that meant ''soul''. When Emerson coined the term ''self- reliance'' for instance, he did not mean it was we do today to refer to rugged individualism, but as an inner reliance on our own divinity as opposed to what the literary critic Harold Bloom calls; ''God- reliance,  self- culture then refer to the cultivation of the soul in individual.''36.
     In this address on self- culture, William Ellery changing defined it by writing to cultivate anything, be it a plant, an animal, a mind, is to make it grow. Growth expansion is the end. He therefore who does what he can to unfold all his power of capacities, especially his nobler ones, so as to become as well- proportioned, vigorous, excellent, happy being, practices, self- culture.
''The transcendentalists believe in a process of life long spiritual growth''37. In her memories, Margaret Fuller acknowledged this process when she wrote; ''very early I knew that the only object in life was to grow. I was often false to this knowledge, in idolatries of particular objects, or impatient longings for happiness, but  have never lost sight of it, have always been controlled by it, and this first gift of love has never been super ceded  by a later love''38.

     Nature served as the dominant trope in transcendentalism discourse. In nature the transcendentalists saw the presence of the divine. In his Journal, Henry David Thoreau wrote; '' my profession is always to be on the alert to find God in nature to know his lurking places to attend all the oratories the operas in nature… to watch for describe all the divine features which I detect in Nature.''39.
     In his essay Nature, Emerson depicts nature in this way; ''The greatest delight which the fields and woods minister, is the suggestion of an occult relation between man and the vegetable. I am not alone and unacknowledged. They nod to me, and I to them. The waving of the boughs in the storm, is new to me and old. It takes me by supervise, and yet is not unknown, it effects is like that of a higher thought or a better coming over me, when I deemed I was thinking justly or doing right.''40.
     For transcendentalists, they appreciation of nature meant being in and with nature. As a spiritual practice, this relationship and interactivity between human beings and nature may take many forms and it helps to be creative at a time in history when it is more difficult to enjoy nature the way the transcendentalism did. It means spending time in natural environments, outside of and separate from our life at work or appreciating the plants, animals, and all sentient beings that surround us, even in a bustling city. In his essay ''Walking'', Thoreau suggests the purpose of time spent walking in nature as this; '' I am alarmed when it happens that I have walked a mile into the woods bodily, without getting there in spirit.''41.
As a spiritual practice, then nature is something we experience.

     Therefore, ''American transcendentalism in fact really began as religious movement an attempt to substitute a Romanticized version of the mystical ideal that humankind is capable of direct experience of the holy for the Unitarian rationalist view that the truths of religion are arrived at by a process of empirical study and by rational inference from historical and natural evidence.''42.
     That belief of term transcendentalism which maintains that man has ideas, that come not through the five senses or the power of reasoning; but are either the result of direct revelation from God, his immediate inspiration, or his immanent presence in the spiritual world.
     Transcendentalism posits a distinction between ''understanding'' or normal means of perception. According to Emerson, reason is the highest faculty of the soul- what we meanly by the soul itself; it never reason, never proves it simply perceives it is ''vision''.
     By contrast the understanding toils all the sighed but strong sighted, dwelling in the present the expedient the customary.


     Here are some definitions and few comments of Transcendentalism by different writers and critics:-
1-   ''The spirit of the time is in every form a protest against usage and a search for principles'' 43.
2-   ''I was given to understand that whatever was unintelligible would be certainly transcendental''44.
3-   ''I should have told them at once that I was a transcendentalist, that would have been the shortest way of telling them that they would not understand my explanation.''45.
4-   ''The word transcendentalism, as used at the present day, has two applications. One of which is popular and indefinite, the other is philosophical and precise. In the former sense it describes man, rather than opinions, since it is freely extended to those who hold opinions not only divers from each other, but directly opposed''46.
5-   ''Transcendentalism is the recognition in man of the capacity of knowing truth intuitively or of attaining a scientific knowledge of an order of existence transcending the reach of the senses and of which we can have no sensible sperience.''47.
6-   ''Literary a passing beyond all media in the approach to the Deity, transcendentalism contained an effort to establish mainly by the discipline of the intuitive faculty direct intercourse between the soul and God''.48.
7-   ''Transcendentalism was not… speculative, but essentially practical and reformatory''49.
8-   '' Transcendentalism was a distinct philosophical system. Practically it was an assertion of the inalienable worth of man; theoretically it was an assertion of the immanence of divinity in instinct, the transference of supernatural attributes to the natural constitution of mankind… transcendentalism is usually spoken of as a philosophy. It is more justly regarded as a gospel: as a philosophy it is … so far from uniform, that it may rather be considered several system, that one … transcendentalism was … an enthusiasm a wave of sentiment, a breath of mind.''50.
9-   ''The problem in transcendentalism philosophy is no less than this, to revise the experience of mankind to test ethics by conscience, science by reason; to try the creeds of the churches, the constitution of the states, by the constitution of the univers.''51.
10-                          ''We feel it be a solemn duty to warn our readers and in our measure, the public, against this German atheism, which the spirit of darkness is employing ministers of gospel to smuggle in among us under false pretenses.''52
11-                          ''The fundamental of transcendentalism are to be felt as sentiments or grasped by the imagination as poetical wholes, rather than set down in propositions.''53.
12-                          ''First and foremost, it can only be rightly conceived as an intellect reasoned doctrine. It was a renaissance of conscious, living faith in the power of reason in the reality of spiritual insight in the privilege, beauty and glory of life''54.
13-                          ''The transcendentalism adopts the whole connection of spiritual doctrine. … if there is anything grand or daring in human thought or virtue, any reliance on the vast, the unknown; any presentiment, any extravagance of faith, the spiritualist mind has always tended to this loneness. Buddhism, for example is an expression of it. The Buddhist … is a transcendentalist … shall we say then that transcendentalism is the Saturnalia or excess of faith; the presentiment of faith proper to man in his integrity, excessive only when his imperfect obedience lenders the satisfaction of his wish?''55.
14-                          ''Transcendentalism was a blending of platonic metaphysics and the puritan spirit of a philosophy and a character… taking place at a definite time in a specially fertilized soil under particular conditions.''56. 
     Transcendentalists believe in Nature, when we speak about Nature in this manner, we have a distinct but most poetically sense in the mind. We mean the integrity of impression made by manifold natural objects.
The major tenets of Transcendentalism can be summarized as follows:
1-                                Transcendentalism essentially is a form of idealism.
2-                                ''The transcendentalists transcends or rises above the lower animalistic impulses of life (animal drives ) and moves from rational to spiritual realm.''57.
3-                                The human soul is part of the over soul  or universal spirit to which it and other souls return at death. Therefore every individual is to be respected because every one has a portion of that over soul or life force or God can be found every where- travel to holy places is, therefore not necessary.
4-                                ''God can be found in both nature and human nature.''58
5-                                More important than a concern about the afterlife should be concern for this life. ''the only thing in the world of values is the active soul''59.
6-                                ''Death is never to be feared, for at death the soul merely passes to the over soul''.60.
7-                                Emphasis should be places on the here and now. ''give me one world at a time'' 61.
8-                                ''Evil is a negative merely an absence of good light is more powerful than darkness because one ray of light penetrates the dark''62. In other words, there is no belief in the existence of Satan as an active entity forcing humans to commit immorality. Humans are good and if they do immoral acts they do so out of ignorance and by not thinking.
9-                                Power is to be obtained by defying fate or predestination, which seem to work against humans by exercising one's own spiritual and moral strength. Emphasis on self- reliance. Hence, the emphasis is places on a human thinking.
10-                          The transcendentalism see the necessity of examples of great leaders, writers, philosophers, and others to show what an individual can become through thinking and action.
11-                          The unity of life and universe must be realized there is a relationship between all things.
12-                          ''One must have faith in intuition for no church or creed can communicate truth''63.
13-                          ''Reform must not be emphasized true reform comes from with.''64.



1.3:  Naturalism :

        ''Naturalism is an approach or method insisting on the analysis of reality in terms of natural forces, e.g. heredity, physical drives and environment.''65.
     It attempts to apply scientific theory and methods to imaginative writing. ''Naturalists concentrated on the physical world to exclusion of the supernatural…''66.
''The chief literary theorist on naturalism was; Emile Zola, who asserted that the novelist should belike the scientist, examine various phenomena in life and drawing unquestionable conclusions dispassantely.''67.
     As a result of the advances science made in the middle of the 19thcentury, thinkers started to adopt mechanistic ideas once again. They adopted their ideas not from physics and mathematics (Bacon, Newton, Decartes) but from biology (Herbert, Spencer, Charles Darwin), under the influence of Darwin's Evolution. They reduced man from his Romantic heroic stature to an animal small and helpless in the universe and at the mercy of the forces about him. Thus , human being was a product of heredity and environment.
     It was against Realism tendency of running the danger of simply gathering minute details which result in nothing that the naturalists rebelled. But, they themselves are often guilty of oversimplifying and of using non representative characters, resulting in doctrinaire statement. Both schools were artistic responses to the growing power of science during the 19th century.
     The Realists used the scientific value of the material without putting it in a fully deterministic pattern. The naturalists, who were obsessed with evolutionary biology, Marxian history and depth psychologies (Freud), sought to understand the forces that control human beings and their actions.
''Naturalists have been the most uncompromising realists. They believe that knowledge is acquired through the senses, and that the function of the writer is to report accurately. What he or she observes'' 68.
     The naturalists tries to be as objective as a laboratory scientist. He refers to the novel as a laboratory, and implies a philosophy of deterministic materialism. For him, human beings are; ''human beasts''; thus characters can be studied through their relationships to their surroundings.
''Zola follows the historian Hippolyte Taine in observing that human beings as ''products'' should be studied impartially without moralizing about their natures on the whole'' 69.
     We can assume that naturalism had its origins in scientific through and the philosophy of materialism of the 19th century. Naturalists writers saw man as the products of social conditions, a mechanism that responded to behaviorists stimuli in the circumstances around him. They try to show that people are trapped by great forces surrounding them over which they have no control. In their theory of life, naturalists are more pessimistic that Realists. The Realists believe people can make moral choices, but the naturalists believe they cannot. Must influenced by historians August Comte and Kart Marx (his economic determinism). Zola insisted on the role of the detached recorder and like Flaubert believed that the author should entirely erase himself from his material and report without sentiment or moralizing.
    ''Naturalists chose their materials from the ugly side of life: sex, hunger, poverty, disease''70.
     In picturing people as trapped by their environment the naturalists usually deals with the harsh and degraded aspects of life characters in naturalistic literature are driven by their most basic drives. For instance, in Flaubert's Madame Bovary, the instinct of sex is determine force in the degeneration of a weak young woman seeking escape from the monotony of every day life in the French country side.
     ''The language of naturalists writers is often coarse''71, their view of life hopeless and their mood depressing. Yet in the best naturalistic works there is a tone of compassion and even admiration for those characters who struggle against overwhelming disasters. The principles of naturalistic fiction were first stated Emil Zola in The Experimental Novel(1880). Zola argued that novelists should treat their material as scientists treat theirs. Before 1880, psychological and physiological studies such as what Zola recommended had appeared in works by Honore de Balzac, Jules and Edmond de Goncourt, Gustave Flaubert, and other French writers. Zola's novels such as Germinal, 1885) shocked English and American readers, but his theories and novels established naturalism as an important literary movement. Naturalistic fiction offered detailed and fully researched investigations into unexplored corners of modern society.
     ''Notable naturalists include Goncourt brothers, J. Huysmans, Maupassant, the English authors George Moore(his master piece is Esther Waters) and George Gissing (odd woman), and American writers, Theodore Dreiser, Frank Norris, Stephen Crane.''72.
   ''Determinism is pervasive in Thomas Hardy's novels''73.
     Who is the last great English 19th century, novelists. His final novel,Jude the Obscure. Represents the limit of pessimism. While reading his works one is aware of new science, initiated by the biologists Herbert Spencer, Charles Darwin and T.H.H Uxley , which rejects man as a free being capable of choice. It is a view of humanity as the product of blind mechanistic forces over which he has no control. Hardy reduced human character to pain frustration, and impotent anger.

  



The most important characteristics of Naturalism can be summarized as follows:
1-                                In America, naturalists introduce new topics and helped broaden the scope of American fiction:
a-                                 ''Prostitution and seduction in The Octopus by Frank Norris(1901) and Sister Carrie by Theodore Dreiser (1900).
b-                                Exposure of social evils- the Octopus.
c-                                 As determinists, they believe in the existence of the will, but the will is often enslaved on account of different reason.''74.
2-                                Naturalists attempts to represent the intermingling of the controlling forces and individual worth in life. They don't dehumanize their characters.
3-                                The subject matters :
a-                                 The subject matter deals with those raw and unpleasant experiences which reduce characters to ''degrading'' behavior in their struggle to survive. These characters are mostly the lower middle or the lower classes- they are poor, uneducated and unsophisticated.
b-                                The milieu is the commonplace and the un heroic; life is usually the dull routine of daily existence. But the naturalist writer might discover those qualities in characters associated with the heroic or adventurous (acts of violence and passion leading to desperate moments and violent death.) the suggestion is that life on its lowest levels is not so simple as it seems to be.


4-                                The conflict : often ''man against nature'' or man against himself'' as characters struggle to maintain a ''façade of civilization'' despite external pressures that threaten to release the ''brute within'' 75.
5-                                ''Sociological or environment determinism''76, the weak is destroyed and the strong survive in a world of struggle and chance.
6-                                ''The fight for survival in an a moral, indifferent universe''77. Nature is an indifferent forces acting on the lives of human beings. The romantic vision of Wordsworth (that nature never did betray the heart that loved her, becomes Stephen Crane's view in 'The Open Boat') this tower was against standing with its back to the plight of the ants. It represented in a degree… the serenity of nature amid the struggles of the individual… she did not seem cruel to him then, but she was indifferent flatly indifferent.
7-                                ''The 'brute within' each individual comprised of strong and often warring emotions: passions such as last greed or the desire for dominance or pleasure''78.
8-                                Key terms of Naturalism are: survival, determinism, violence and taboo.
Therefore there are many characteristics of literary Naturalism, in addition to the previous ones pessimism is one of these characteristics in which very often one or more characters will continue to repeat one line or phrase that tends to have a pessimistic connection, most likely about death.
     Another feature is detachment from the story. The author often tries to remain objective by detaching from the story, the author can achieve objectivity.
      The author will often achieve detachment by creating nameless characters. This puts the objectivity. This puts the focus more on the plot and what happens to the character, rather than the characters themselves.
     Another feature of Naturalism is determinism. Determinism is basically the opposite of the notion of free will. With determinism, the power of characters influence over their own lives is taken away by nature or fate. Often, the author will lead the reader to believe the character's fate has already been predetermined, and he/she can do nothing about it.
     Another characteristic is a surprising twist at the end of the story where the author will lead the reader in one direction at the beginning and through the middle of the story, but ultimately go in a completely unexpected direction. So that, naturalism is a type of literature that used scientific principles of objectivity and indifference to the study of human beings. Through the study of human beings.
     ''Naturalistic writers think that the laws behind the forces that rule human lives could be studied and understood''79.
     They believe that people are governed by their nature and their own enthusiasm. ''naturalists believe that the judgment of people is based on their own thoughts and opinions of things.''80.
     Naturalism is a newer style and a logical extension of the old term realism. The term naturalism came from Zola, Emile is believed that he sought for a new idea to convince the reading public of something new and more modern in his fiction.
     ''He argued that his dedication to fictional reading was to create characters and plots based on the scientific method.''81.
     Many of the American naturalists, especially Norrric and London, were heavily influenced by Zola. They sought explanations for human behavior in natural science, and were skeptical, at least, of organized religion and beliefs in human free will. However, the Americans did not form coherent literary movement and their occasioned critical and theoretical reflections do not present a uniform philosophy.
      Although Zola (one of the most important French writer of naturalism 1480-1902)  was a touch stone of contemporary debates over genre, Dreiser, perhaps the most important of the naturalist writers, regarded Balzac as a greater influence.
     Naturalism in American literature is therefore best understood   historically in the generational manner outlined in the previous paragraph. In philosophical and generic terms. American naturalism must be defined rather  more loosely, as a reaction against the realist fiction of the 1870s and 1880s, where scope was limited to middle class or 'Local Color' topics with taboos on sexuality and violence.
     The most significant elements of this reaction can be summarized as follows: ''naturalism or naturalists fiction in the united states often concentrated on the non-Anglo, ethnically marked inhabitants of the growing American cities, many of them immigrants and most belonging to a class-spectrum of ranging from the destitute to the lower middle-class.''82
     The naturalists were not the first to concentrate on the industrialized American city, but they significant in that they believe that the realist tools refined in the 1870s and 1880s were in adequate to represent it. Abraham Gahan, for instance, sought both to represent and to address the Jewish community of New York's East side of which he was a member.

     The fiction of Theodore Dreiser, the son of the first and second generation immigrants from central Europe features many German and Irish figures. Frank Norris and Stephen Crane, themselves from established middles Allied to this, naturalist writers were skeptical towards or downright hostile to the notions of bourgeois individualism, that characterized realist novels about middle-class life. Most naturalists demonstrated a concern with the animal or the irrational motivations for human behavior, sometimes manifested in connection with sexuality and violence. Here they differed strikingly from French counterparts.

     ''Nature is simply what we have good reason to believe exists.''83 we can see therefore, that naturalism is a metaphysical thesis is driven by a desire for a clear, reliable account of reality and how it works, a desire that generates an unflinching commitment to objectivity and explanatory transparency.

     The naturalists understands not only that we are not exceptions to natural laws, but that we don’t need to be in order to secure any central value (freedom, human rights, morality, moral responsibility or capacity, reason, empathy, ingenuity, originality), we can positively affirm and celebrate the fact that nature is enough. Indeed, the realization that we are fully natural creatures has profoundly positive effects in creasing our sense of connection to the world and others, fostering tolerance, compassion and humility, and giving us greater control over our circumstances. This realization supports a progressive and effective engagement with the human condition in all its dimensions. So we can justly call it worldview naturalism.
     Naturalism according to certain writers is the understanding that there is a single, natural world as shown by science, and that we are completely included in it.
     ''Naturalism told that everything we are and derived from conditions that precede us and surround us.''84
    ''Each of us is an unfolding natural process, and every aspect of that process is caused, and is a cause itself.''85
       we are fully caused creatures and seeing just how we are caused gives us power and control, while encouraging compassion and humility, by understanding consciousness. Choice and even our highest capacities as materially based, naturalism re-enchants the physical world, allowing us to be at home in the universe.
     Naturalism shows our full connection to the world and others, it leads to an ethics of compassion and it gives us for greater control over our circumstances.

     ''Naturalism, in essence is simply the idea that human beings are completely included in the natural world.''86.
     Naturalism is based on science as the best most reliable means for discovering what exists. ''science shows that each and every aspect of a human being comes from and is completely connected to the natural world and is understandable in term of those connections.''87
     The naturalistic view of Man is of course very different from traditional religious or supernatural understanding and it has profound implications. They confirm that we don't have souls that continue after death. Instead we are fully physical creatures, we don't have free will.
     We are as Muslims entirely against Naturalism's notion and thought about life and death. Because we have the evidence one of the most important evidence is our book ''Koran''. Koran has all the answers for any question in the world that related with life and the life after death issues.All religions speak of two levels of existence. One is that of this phenomenal world, which we experience with the five senses characteristic of our body made of matter. The other is that of the transcendent world where we are believed to exist as a spirit.

In this life itself, we have both the body and the spirit. The body is measurable or quantifiable, whereas the spirit is abstract, incommensurable. Only measurable entities can be subjected to scientific studies; and only those entities that are subject to some form of scientific scrutiny or observation by qualified persons can be "proved" (in the
     The term naturalism describe a type of literature that attempts to apply scientific principles of objectivity and detachment to its study of human beings. unlike ''realism, which focuses on literary technique, naturalism implies a philosophical positions''88
     For naturalistic writers, since human beings are naturalistic writers, since human beings are Emile Zola's phrase ''Human Beasts''89. Characters can be studied through this objective study of human beings, ''naturalistic writers believed that the laws behind the forces that governed human lives might be studied and understood.''90.
     Naturalistic writers thus used a version of the scientific method to write their novels; they studied human beings governed by their instincts and passions as well as the ways in which the characters lives were governed by forces of heredity and environment. Although they used the techniques of accumulating detail pioneered by the realists, the naturalists thus had a specific objects in mind when they choose the segment of reality that they wished to convey.
     In George Baker's famous and much-annotated and contrasted phrase, naturalism's philosophical framework can be simply described as ''pessimistic, materialism, determinstic''91.
     The naturalistic novel usually contains two tensions or contradictions, and the two of conjunction comprise both an interpretation of experience and a particular esthetic recreation of experience.
     In other words, the two constitute the theme and form of the naturalistic novels the first tension is that, ''between the subject matter of the naturalistic novel and the concept of man which emerges from this subject matter.''92.
     The naturalist populates his novel primarily from the lower middle class or the lower class . His fictional world is that of the commonplace and un heroic in which life would seem to be chiefly the dull round of daily existence, as we ourselves usually conceive of our lives. But the naturalists discovers in this world those qualities of man usually associated with the heroic or adventurous such as acts of violence and passion which involve sexual adventure or bodily strength and which culminate in desperate moments and violent death.
     ''A naturalistic novel is thus an extension of realism only in the local and contemporary.''93 The naturalist, however discovers in this material the extraordinary and excessive in human nature.
     The second tension involves, ''the theme of the naturalistic novel.''94 The naturalist often describes his character as through they are conditioned and controlled by environment, heredity, instinct or chance. But he also suggest a compensating humanistic value in his characters or their fates which affirms the significance of the individual and of his life. ''the tension here is that between the naturalist's desire to represent in fiction the new discomfiting truths which he has found in the ideas of life of his nineteenth century. World and his desire to find some meaning in experience which reasserts the validity of the human enterprise''95
Notes
1.                                 (1): Mary Jo Tate,  Forward by Mathew J. Broccoli. ''Critical companion to F. Scott Fitzgerald: A literary reference to his life and work''. (San Francisco:Overseas Printing Corp2007). P.3
2.                                 Ibid. P. 4
3.                                 Ibid. P. 5
4.                                 Ibid. P. 6
5.                                 Ibid. P. 9
6.                                 (7 ): Kirk, Curnutt. ''The Cambridge Introduction to F. Scott Fitzgerald.'' (London: Cambridge University Press, 2007). P. 13
7.                                 Ibid. P. 14
8.                                 Ibid. P. 15
9.                                 Ibid. P. 24
10.        (11) : Prigozy, Ruth. ''The Cambridge Companion to F. Scott Fitzgerald.'' ( London:Cambridge University Press,  2002). P. 84, 79
11.                    (12): Yesganeh ,Farah. ''Literary Schools'' ( Iran: Rahnama Publications, Tehran University, 2002) . P. 1
12.                           Ibid. P.2
13.                           Ibid. P.3
14.                           Ibid. P.4, 5
15.                           Ibid. P. 6,7,8
16.          (17): Abrams, M. H, ''A Glossary of Literary Terms of  Transcendentalism'' ( USA: New York University Press print in 1993). P. 18
17.                           Ibid. P. 33
18.                           (19): Ralph Waldo Emerson. ''Nature''.(Massachusetts: King Printing Company,1836) . P. 20.
19.                           (20):Yesganeh, Farah.   p. 4.
20.                           Ibid. P. 22
21.                         (22): Albanese, Catherine L, ''Corresponding Motion: Transcendental Religion and the New America'' (Ohio: BookMaster Inc, 1977). P. 12
22.                           Ibid. P. 13,14
23.                           (24): Gura, Philip F, ''American Transcendentalism'' (Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania university press, 2007). P. 5, 11
24.                           Ibid. P. 22
25.                           (26): Encyclopedia Britannica. 2001.
26.                        (27): Kern, Alexander. ''The Rise of Transcendentalism in Transitions in American Literary History.'' (California: California university Press, 1954). P. 17,18
27.                           Ibid. P. 19
28.                           (30): Boller, Paul F, ''American Transcendentalism: an Intellectual Inquiry''. (New York: DNP America, LLC, 1974 ). P. 49,50
29.                           (31): Reuben, Paul P,  ''American Transcendentalism: A Brief Introduction'' ( Washington: Star Print Brokers, Inc, 2007). P. 14
30.                           (32): Emerson, Ralph Waldo. ''Ralph Waldo Emerson, selected Essays, Lectures and Poems'' (Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania university press 1990) p. 36
31.                           (33): Reuben ,Paul P,   P. 18
32.                         (34): Myerson, Joel ''The Transcendentalists: a review of research and criticism'' (Florida:Marrakech Express Printing Inc,1984) . P. 73,38
33.                           (35): Gura, Philip F,  P. 44,45
34.                           (55): Reuben ,Paul P.  P. 40,44
35.                           Ibid. P. 50
36.                         (57): Buell, Lawrence. ''Literary Transcendentalism: style and vision in the American Renaissance.'' ( New York: New York University press, 1973) . P. 28,29
37.                        (58): Simon, Myron & Thornton H. Pasons. ''Transcendentalism and its legacy'' ( Michigan: Color House Graphics, Inc.,   1966 ). P. 11
38.               (59): Barbour, Brain M. ''American Transcendentalism an anthology of criticism'' (Washington: Star Print Brokers, Inc,  1973). P. 36
39.                           (60): Halengran, Anders. ''The code of Concord Emerson's search for universal laws'' (New York: University Press, 1994).    P. 32
40.                          (61): Thoreau, Henry David. ''Walden and other writings'' (Washington: University Press, 1981) p. 48
41.                    (62): Loving, Jerome. ''American Transcendentalism'', In Arch Literary Journal, 6, (Feb,  2007). P. 18,19
42.                           (63): Myerson, Joel. ''Transcendentalism'' (Colorado: University Press,   2000). P. 22
43.                           (64): Encyclopedia Britannica ''American Literature'', 2009.
44.                           (65): Yesgeneh, Farah. P. 117
45.                           Ibid. P. 118
46.                           Ibid. P. 119
47.                           Ibid. P. 120
48.                           Ibid. P. 121
49.                           Ibid. P. 122
50.              (71): Williams, Raymond. ''Keywords: A Vocabulary of culture and society'' (Washington: University Press,  1988) p. 14
51.                           (72): Reuben, Paul P,   p. 50
52.                           Ibid. P. 51
53.                           Ibid. P. 52
54.                           Ibid. P. 53
55.                           Ibid. P. 54
56.                           Ibid. P. 55
57.                           Ibid. P. 56
58.                           Ibid. P. 60
59.                           Ibid. P. 61
60.                           Ibid. P. 62
61.              (82): Combell, Donna M, ''Naturalism in American Literature, Literary movement'' (New York: New York University Press, 2008). P. 33
62.                           Ibid. P. 34
63.                           Ibid. P. 35
64.                           Ibid. P. 36
65.                           Ibid. P. 37
66.                           Ibid. P. 40
67.                           Ibid. P. 41
68.                           Ibid. P. 42
69.                           Ibid. P. 44
70.                           Ibid. P. 59
71.                           Ibid. P. 60
72.                           (93): Williams, Raymond.   p. 70
73.                           Ibid. P. 71
74.                           Ibid. P. 72
75.                           Ibid. P. 73





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